Darüber hinaus wird Quecksilber in einem breiten Spektrum von Produkten und Verfahren verwendet: von der Saatgutaufbereitung über Konsumprodukte und Zahnfüllungen bis hin zu Konservierungsstoffen für Impfstoffe. Daher sind wir alle Quecksilber in irgendeiner Form oder Konzentration ausgesetzt. Diese die

Umwelt und die öffentliche Gesundheit betreffenden Aspekte des Quecksilbers sind von Clarkson 2002 in einem Übersichtsartikel ausführlich behandelt worden [1]. Der Leser sei auf diesen Review mit dem Titel „The three modern faces of mercury” verwiesen, in dem auf hervorragende Weise alle wichtigen Themen im Zusammenhang mit der Exposition von Menschen gegenüber Quecksilber und die besonderen Charakteristika der Chemie des Quecksilbers diskutiert werden. Es liegen zahlreiche Doxorubicin cost Übersichtsartikel vor, die sich mit der Toxizität von Quecksilber und seinen Verbindungen bei Säugetieren und Menschen befassen. Einen besonders umfassenden und gründlichen Review haben Clarkson und Magos publiziert [2]. In diesem Übersichtsartikel wird die Toxikologie sowohl von anorganischem als auch von

organischem Quecksilber behandelt. Er beleuchtet insbesondere einige „Rätsel”, die immer noch unsere wissenschaftliche Neugier herausfordern. buy Etoposide Ein solcher Aspekt ist das verzögerte Auftreten von Symptomen nach einer Exposition gegenüber Alkylquecksilberverbindungen. Die Latenzphase nach der Exposition kann einige Wochen bis mehrere Monate dauern, wobei die Symptome, wenn sie erst einmal eingesetzt haben, sich rasch verschlimmern. Die Latenzphase verkürzt sich nicht mit steigender Dosis und der Mechanismus, der die Latenzphase bewirkt, ist immer noch unbekannt. Noch nicht einmal der Schlüsselmechanismus ist bekannt, der der Neurotoxizität von Alkylquecksilberverbindungen zugrunde liegt, wobei ein vorgeschlagener Hauptmechanismus sowohl die Natur der Latenzphase Dynein als auch die Zellspezifität der Schäden erklären sollte. Im Folgenden präsentieren wir eine kurze Übersicht über die allgemeine

Toxikologie des Quecksilbers. Im Hauptteil des Artikels befassen wir uns jedoch mit der Toxikologie von Alkylquecksilber und machen den Versuch einer Bewertung der möglichen Mechanismen, die bei Überlegungen im Hinblick auf ein sicheres Ausmaß der Quecksilber-Exposition, z. B. durch den Verzehr von Fisch, von praktischer Bedeutung sind. Elementares Quecksilber (Hg0) ist bei Raumtemperatur flüchtig und die Dämpfe können für den Menschen gefährlich sein. Eine Exposition gegenüber Quecksilber kann in Labors, an Arbeitsplätzen sowie in häuslicher Umgebung stattfinden. In privaten Haushalten werden u. U. beschädigte Quecksilberthermometer zu einer Expositionsquelle, da es sehr schwierig sein kann, ausgelaufenes Quecksilber aufzusammeln. In vielen Ländern ist die Verwendung von Quecksilber in Thermometern inzwischen verboten, um das Risiko für die Verbraucher und die Gefahr einer Freisetzung von Quecksilber in die Umwelt zu verringern.

Finally,

1:1 phase synchrony between the resultant filtered envelope and the original envelope of the slower oscillation was estimated using PLV1:1 statistics to quantify the strength of phase-amplitude modulation (referred to as PLVPAM), which is one of the most common manifestations of nesting. The analysis of spike timing with respect to LFP phase was performed for gamma, alpha and theta oscillations during an active attractor-coding state. The reference rhythms and their instantaneous phase were obtained by filtering and applying a Hilbert transform. In addition, a more detailed examination was made to distinguish peaks in the phase distribution OSI-744 mouse for the gamma rhythm when studying individual Protein Tyrosine Kinase inhibitor contributions from basket and pyramidal cells. The signals generated within each hypercolumn were then matched with the spikes produced by the corresponding

local basket and pyramidal cells. In addition, spikes produced by basket cells from other hypercolumns were also examined to compare with the local phase distribution. All the firing phase distributions were statistically assessed using circular statistics. First, in order to test the null hypothesis about uniform circular distribution of the gamma phases of spikes produced locally by pyramidal and basket cells, Rao’s spacing test (Rao, 1976), Hodges–Ajne test (Zar, 1999) and the standard Rayleigh test (Fischer, 1995) were performed (Berens, 2009). Since the hypothesis about the uniformity of the phase firing was rejected in both cases at the 0.05 significance level, it was verified whether these circular random variables followed a von Mises distribution by estimating Watson’s U2 statistic ( Lockhart and Stephens, 1985). However, the hypotheses for both pyramidal and basket cells were rejected and in consequence, a nonparametric evaluation of the preferred phase of firing with 95% confidence intervals was performed using a bootstrap computation of the circular Hodges–Lehmann statistic as a point estimate along

with a so-called equal-tailed arc as an interval estimate ( Otieno, 2002 and Otieno Arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase and Anderson-Cook, 2006). These techniques have been demonstrated to perform well for skewed or nonsymmetrical sample distributions ( Otieno, 2002), as in the cases investigated here. Finally, the null-hypothesis that the two mean preferred phases (for pyramidal and basket cells) were equal was subjected to nonparametric permutation test (p<0.01). Circular visualization of firing phase distributions with respect to theta, alpha and gamma rhythms was made with the use of the circular statistics toolbox (Berens, 2009) in MATLAB. The analysis of instantaneous firing rates in the model during attractor activation was performed using peri-stimulus time histogram by aligning spike sequences with respect to the attractor onset.

57; t(5) = 6.36, p = .001], but importantly the reaction time in the V4 TMS condition was not at ceiling and is in line with previous effects seen Ku-0059436 purchase with online TMS priming studies ( Campana et al., 2002 and Campana et al., 2008). Having determined within site effects, we then compared the magnitude of reduction in colour priming across sites by calculating the difference between the sizes of the priming effect

in the post cTBS conditions relative to baseline for each group using a between subjects t-test. This showed that there was a significant disruption in colour priming following cTBS to human V4 relative to MT/V5 [t(10) = 2.52, p = .015, one-tailed] and relative to the vertex [t(10) = 2.029, p = .035, one-tailed], but that the effects of stimulation to MT/V5 and the vertex did

not differ from one another [t(10) = −.105 p = .918; Fig. 1b]. These findings demonstrate a site specific disruption in colour priming following cTBS and are consistent with the notion that the perceptual priming of visual attributes relies upon neural activity in functionally specialized regions of the visual cortex (Tulving and Schacter, 1990). They parallel findings that macaques show deficits in colour priming following lesions to macaque area V4 (Walsh et al., 2000) and extend findings that neural activity in human MT/V5 is crucial for motion Selleckchem ZD1839 priming in humans (Campana et al., 2002), by showing that other functionally specialized extrastriate regions play a critical role in perceptual HSP inhibition priming for healthy adults. It should be noted, however, that while we have shown a disruption

of colour priming by stimulating previously reported coordinates for V4, the V4 site is on the ventral surface of the cortex and likely to be at the limits of the depth of human brain stimulation. However, in light of the expected functions of the nearby cortical regions, the most parsimonious explanation of the data obtained is that the effects were due to disruption of area V4/regions involved in colour processing rather than more superficial regions. Future studies may clarify this. This work was supported by the British Academy (M.J.B.), the ESRC (M.J.B.), the MRC (V.W.), and the National Science Council, Taiwan (N.G.M.; 100-2410-H-008-074-MY3). We would like to thank Amy Murphy for her assistance with this project. “
“The authors regret that in the article referenced above the affiliations for Tereza Lopotová and Jaroslav Polák were incorrect as published. The correct affiliations are given above. Also, in reference number [19] the name J. Moravcová was listed twice. The second mention should be K. Machová Poláková. The corrected Reference is as follows: [19] T. Lopotová, J. Moravcová, V. Polívková, J. Polák, J. Schwarz, H. Klamová, K.

32 and Michael et al.33

These findings suggest that the raloxifene and oestrogen present different mechanisms of action in the expression of OPG, RANKL and TRAP. Furthermore, oestrogen and SERMs present different this website clinical profile, differently modulating ERα and Erβ transcription activities.23, 34, 35 and 36 In recent study realized by Yan et al.,37 with OPG knockout female rats, the authors observed an increase in bone trabecular area, bone mineral density and bone resistance after raloxifene therapy as well as a reduction in osteoclasts number and RANKL transcription, suggesting that raloxifene mechanism of action do not depend on OPG protein. SERMs preserve the positive effects of oestrogen on bone tissue without adverse effects in uterine and breast tissues.38 Whilst raloxifene has shown protective action of osteocytes apoptosis induction caused by OVX,24, 29 and 39 the selleck kinase inhibitor molecular mechanism of this protection remains unknown. Structurally different from oestrogen, raloxifene retain a cyclohexane hydroxyl group C3 which may potentially facilitate its antioxidant action. More studies are necessary to better evaluate the

biological mechanisms in which raloxifene acts. Even though, our experiments have shown an important participation of tumoural necrosis factor in signalising osteoclastic activity inhibition. RANKL immunolabelling reduction and OPG immunolabelling increasing and its consequent reduction of TRAP immunolabelling Quisqualic acid observed on OVX/RLX group shows the role of raloxifene therapy in protecting bone tissue that brings an important therapeutic option to keep bone tissue homeostasis. Oestrogen deficiency induces osteoclastogenesis in the alveolar healing process. Quantitative changes in the osteoclastic activity could be prevented through the raloxifene therapy. This research was supported by FAPESP (Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo) process numbers 04/07562-5; 05/51367-5. Funding: FAPESP (Process Numbers: 04/07562-5; 05/51367-5). Competing interests: No conflict of interest. Ethical

approval: Animal Research Ethics Committee of the São Paulo State University, Brazil (Protocol number 38/05). “
“The oral cavity is inhabited by more than seven hundred microbial species. Many intrinsic and extrinsic factors have effects on the composition, metabolic activity, and pathogenicity of the oral microflora.1 and 2 The oral microflora are remarkably stable in healthy subjects, but significant changes may occur in subjects facing serious systemic disease and its treatment. An imbalance in the commensal flora may occur in immunosuppressed individuals or those under antibiotic therapy, favouring the growth of some microorganisms and causing opportunistic infections.3, 4 and 5 Considerable controversy remains as to whether Staphylococcus spp. play a role in the ecology of the normal oral flora. The role of S. aureus in several diseases of the oral mucosa merits further investigation. Smith et al.

However, the mechanism by which mTORC2 is activated upon interaction with ribosomes still needs to be clarified. Glutaminolysis provides an interesting mTOR-related link between metabolism and cancer. Veliparib molecular weight Highly proliferating cancer cells are often glutamine-addicted, and tumor growth correlates with the activity of glutaminase (GLS), the enzyme that catalyzes the first step of glutaminolysis [123 and 124]. Conversely, inhibition of GLS blocks cancer development and slows growth in certain gliomas [125 and 126]. Duran et al. [ 63••] recently demonstrated that glutaminolysis also activates mTORC1, thereby

promoting cell growth and inhibiting autophagy [ 63••]. These findings suggest that glutaminolysis promotes cancer, at least partly, via mTORC1 activation. Targeting both glutaminolysis and mTORC1 may be a strategy for treatment of glutamine-addicted tumors. This review emphasizes the importance of mTOR signaling in aging, whole body metabolism, and cancer. Tissue-specific mTORC1 and mTORC2 deletions have revealed that each of the two complexes has different

roles in different organs with regard to whole body glucose and lipid homeostasis. For example impaired mTORC2 signaling in the selleck chemicals liver and muscle leads to a diabetic phenotype whereas mTORC2 deletion in adipose tissue does not cause diabetes. Similarly, deletion of mTORC1 signaling in muscle but not in adipose tissue or liver leads to glucose intolerance. Thus, the development of treatments that target mTOR signaling to delay aging or to treat metabolic

disorders and cancer will require understanding tissue-specific mTOR signaling. Even though rapamycin has been shown to increase lifespan and to protect against cancer, side effects such as immunosuppression or diabetes may limit rapamycin’s usefulness as a potential longevity drug. Papers of particular interest, published within the period of review, have been highlighted U0126 as: • of special interest We acknowledge support from the Swiss National Science Foundation, the Swiss Cancer League, the Louis–Jeantet Foundation, the SFD-ALFEDIAM (MC), the Werner Siemens Foundation (VA) and the Canton of Basel. “
“Current Opinion in Genetics & Development 2013, 23:72–74 Available online 28th Feb 2013 0959-437X/$ – see front matter, © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gde.2013.01.006 In animals, early stages of embryo development are associated with extensive epigenetic reprogramming to coordinate zygotic genome activation (ZGA) [2]. ZGA is typically delayed, although to a varying extent depending on the species, with a gradual loss of the maternal dominance and increase of zygotic influence [1 and 2].

However, while close

proximity of CD4+ T cells with osteoclasts has been demonstrated in rheumatoid arthritis patients [10], the same study failed to identify γδ T cells associated with osteoclasts, with γδ T cells localised mainly to soft tissue structures such as synovium and tendon. Therefore, the induction of CD4+ T cell activation through Trametinib interaction with osteoclasts, particularly osteoclasts exposed to a pro-inflammatory environment, may be of functional relevance in vivo, but evidence for direct interactions of γδ T cells with osteoclasts in vivo is currently lacking. Despite this, our findings suggest that osteoclasts can still influence γδ T cell function in the absence of direct cell–cell contact via the production of stimulatory mediators (such as TNFα, which is abundant in the inflamed synovium of rheumatoid Selleckchem Stem Cell Compound Library arthritis patients [7] and [34]) in the joint microenvironment. We also report here that osteoclasts support both γδ and CD4+ T cell survival, in accordance with a recent study [12]. This survival effect appears to rely on cell–cell contact and, although the specific mechanism remains to be elucidated, previous studies have suggested that LFA-1:ICAM-1 and CD28:CD80 interactions are important mediators of the survival effects of dendritic

cells on CD4+ T cell survival [35]. In support of a role for CD28 co-stimulation in mediating the survival and proliferative effects on γδ T cells, a recent study reported that murine γδ T cells co-cultured

with antigen-presenting cells showed an increased proliferation in the presence of CD28 agonists, and antibody-mediated blockade of CD28-signalling prevented γδ T cell proliferation [36]. Since CD80 and CD86 (the ligands of CD28) are expressed on osteoclasts [11], we suggest that co-stimulation of CD28 on γδ T cells and on CD4+ T cells may be the cell-contact-dependent mechanism responsible for the osteoclast-mediated support of γδ and CD4+ T cell survival and IL-2-induced γδ T cell proliferation. Our study also Ureohydrolase reveals that co-culture with macrophages or osteoclasts induces an enhanced Th1-like bias in γδ T cells as assessed by IFNγ production, demonstrating that the observed macrophage/osteoclast-induced increase in CD69 expression has a functional outcome for γδ T cells in vitro. While the relevance of this finding requires formal verification in vivo, for example using animal model systems of erosive bone diseases or human samples, our study highlights a potentially intriguing capacity of macrophages and osteoclasts to influence γδ T cell function. This may be of particular relevance in the context of aminobisphosphonates (N-BPs), widely-used drugs to treat diseases of excessive osteoclast activity [37], since the major subset of γδ T cells in human peripheral blood, Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells, are potently activated by N-BPs [38], [39], [40] and [41].

[3]. The Duetz sandwich-cover system is a shaking multi-well plate based system that consists of specialized multi-well plate sandwich covers and clamps to hold the closures in place. The sandwich cover is an autoclavable stainless steel lid containing layers of filters and silicon sealing that provides a positive seal on each well of the

plate to promote efficient gas transfer. The headspace refreshment rate of each individual well is controlled by a small hole in the silicone layer above the center of each well and contamination is prevented using autoclavable gas permeable filters [3] and [4]. The system provides a headspace refreshment rate of 0.1–2 working volumes per minute in orbital shakers, permitting oxygen concentrations this website of at least 18% (v/v), even when oxygen uptake rates are as high as 40 mmol O2/L/h. Evaporation at these conditions is kept at a minimum (as low as 2% per day), which permits longer culture times [5]. The clamps assure that the plates and sandwich Enzalutamide manufacturer covers are clamped together tightly and the individual wells are hermetically sealed. The cover clamp can be mounted onto a variety of regular orbital shaking platforms. The Duetz sandwich-cover system can be used with various multi well plates, including 24DW plates. A 24DW plate

can hold up to four milliliter culture volume as compare to one milliliter in any other multi-well plates, which enables multiple samplings on various days of culture. This Duetz sandwich-cover system has been used for bacterial cell culture to maintain oxygen transfer and reduce evaporation [6]. The system has also been used for batch and fed batch culture studies Loperamide with hybridoma and Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cell lines in polystyrene 24 round well plates [7] and [8]. In this study, we have

evaluated the Duetz sandwich-cover system for CHO cell screening studies. CHO cells are the most commonly used mammalian cells for production of biopharmaceuticals. We have tested monoclonal antibody (mAb) producing CHO cell lines in 24DW plates and compared performance to conventional shake flask cultures. Initially, a series of experiments were performed to assess well-to-well and plate-to-plate variability in the 24DW plate. Additional studies were performed to determine the application of the Duetz sandwich-cover system for cell culture medium and supplement screening in batch and fed batch processes. Multiple CHO cell lines were used to ensure that scalability to shake flask culture was not cell line specific. Overall, 24DW plates gave similar kinetics in growth, viability and protein production to those cultured in shake flasks, demonstrating a potential application of 24DW plates with the Duetz sandwich-cover system in high throughput screening for cell culture process development. Studies were carried out using five proprietary mAb producing CHO cell lines.

Even when needs were expressed by relatives, they were not considered as a potential client “How can I put it? Even though I was sad, they did not ask why I was feeling that way…” (R25T2). There was a perception of inequality, of inconsistency in services received by relatives where those who were themselves (or a close one) part of the health care system were favored “I told them that my wife used to be a nurse, so maybe it played in Ganetespib clinical trial my favor” (S14T2) or “I think it might have helped communication

with the social worker once they knew that she was also a social worker” (S15T1). Communication abilities of health professionals emerged as a key factor to foster respect and confidence toward health professionals “He gave me his hand, and he explained me this and that. I liked it when they introduced themselves” (R2T1) or “They were always available and always smiling all the time, as if we were not disturbing them, you know” (S1T1). Good communication between health professionals was appreciated but was perceived as a challenge in acute care settings “I would repeat in the evening, repeat over the next morning, I would repeat every hour, because I was there on a working shift, you know. You tell yourself ok, at some point,

I have other things to do. Always repeating…” (R4T1). Information-seeking on the part of relatives was perceived as being the norm “I tell you, it’s the same everywhere. Here [in rehabilitation] or in acute care, it’s just the same thing. If you want information, you have to run after it yourself, that’s all” (R23T2). As relatives needed to seek for services, availability AG-014699 clinical trial and attitudes of health professionals emerged as a determinant factor which was perceived as a facilitator when for example doctors would do systematic daily rounds “…we had a doctor who would

come almost every day. He took time to talk with us… he would come early in the morning or in the afternoon at around 3 pm” (S9T2) or when the physical environment was supportive “Yes, and Dimethyl sulfoxide of course we would pass by, we would walk around, and they were very close… on the ward, three doors away, and the physiotherapist and occupational therapist were there” (R1T2) or when there was a stability in personnel which was mentioned more frequently in the context of rehabilitation as compared to acute care “So we would walk by, and with time they would recognize us because it was always the same staff. And they would talk to us and ask how we were doing and all that” (R1T2). In contrast, barriers mentioned were high staff turnover “In the first few days, there was a lot of staff turnover, and it was difficult to get new information” (R10T1), scheduling issues such as personnel availability only during day time and weekdays (working hours) “…we did not really speak to the neurologist because he was working days, and we could not be there during the day” (R20T1) or “But you know, treatments were during the day.

14 and left 0.14), full visual fields and pink optic nerves. Growth is poor at 8.5 years even though partially improved post-BMT (height from 0.3 cm below the 0.4th centile before BMT to 0.1 cm below the 0.4th centile). Hematological parameters are now within normal range. Patient 2 was born from consanguineous Pakistani parents (first cousins). She presented with the complaint of progressive pallor for one month at 12 years of age. On examination she showed severe anemia (Hb 6.3 g/dl) and splenomegaly, raising the suspicion of hemolytic anemia; however, work up turned out to be negative.

The presence of growth retardation (height < 2nd centile, weight 9th centile) and complete skeletal survey led to the diagnosis of osteopetrosis (see Fig. 1a upper panel, for the most recent radiological cranial evaluation). ZD1839 She was initially treated with steroids and calcitriol and then received blood transfusion from the age of 15; at present (17 years old) she is on calcitriol only. She presents proptosis, malar prominence and short stature. Patient 3 was born from consanguineous Bangladeshi parents. He was diagnosed with mild osteopetrosis at 9 months due to a generalized increase in bone density on X-ray and visual impairment requiring optic nerve decompression (at 9 years of age), while the hematological compartment was normal. He has had also recurrent mal-uniting fractures

of the femur. At present he is alive and clinically stable at 19 years of age. Patient 4 was born from Black Caribbean unrelated parents. She was accidentally diagnosed at http://www.selleckchem.com/products/GDC-0980-RG7422.html 3 years of age, during a routine X-ray performed after swallowing a screw. She also displayed moderate anemia (Hb 10.4 g/dl) and mild visual impairment with a slight nystagmus, while on a CT scan

foramen magnum narrowing and a syrinx were present. At the age of 7 she underwent a foramen magnum decompression for cerebellar tonsil ectopia and developed hydrocephalus in the postoperative period requiring placement of ventriculo-peritoneal shunt. She is alive at 10 years of age with stable hematological conditions, an important syrinx in the spinal cord, and obstructive sleep apnea requiring nocturnal continuous positive airway pressure. The available X-rays also MEK inhibitor show scaphocephaly (Fig. 1a central panel), which is rarely seen in osteopetrosis while it has been reported in Pycnodysostosis; distal phalangeal tufts are small, but no overt signs of acroosteolysis are apparent (Fig. 1b left panel). Patient 5 was born from Pakistani, reportedly unrelated parents. Since the age of 3, he was followed due to growth retardation (height < 3rd centile at 5 years of age) and anemia (Hb 8.8 g/dl). Recently, skeletal survey showed the presence of osteopetrotic radiological signs including generalized increase in bone density (Fig. 1b right panel), cranial sclerosis particularly at the skull base (Fig.

, 2011). The olfactory system has attracted considerable interest as a promising source of cells for transplantation after SCI, because of its capacity for lifelong regeneration (Lindsay et al., 2010). The main focus of attention in the olfactory tissue has been a unique type of glia, known as the olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) (Doucette, 1991, Raisman, 2001 and Ramón-Cueto and Muñoz-Quiles, 2011). These cells reside within the two Trametinib in vitro main regions of the olfactory axis: peripherally, in the lamina propria and centrally, along the nerve fiber layer of the olfactory bulb (OB) (Au and Roskams, 2003). The OECs are responsible for maintaining an environment which favors neurite

outgrowth and the creation of new functional synapses

in the central nervous system (Au and Roskams, 2003 and Franssen et al., 2007). Due to their supposed axon regenerative properties, OECs have been extensively studied in animal models of SCI. Although some research has shown locomotor and axonal regeneration improvements, a consensus on the efficacy of this cellular transplantation and mode of action has yet to be reached (Barnett and Riddell, 2007, Boyd et al., 2004, Franssen et al., 2008, Kubasak et al., 2008, Raisman and Li, 2007, Ramón-Cueto and Avila, 1998, Ramón-Cueto et al., 1998, Ramón-Cueto et al., 2000 and Tetzlaff et al., buy ZD1839 2011). The source of OECs for transplantation into injured spinal cord is also subject of debate (Richter et al., 2005). However, the use of olfactory lamina propria (OLP) grafts, which is a more accessible source of OECs in humans, could enable a safer approach for autologous transplantation (Bianco et al., 2004, Féron et al., 1998 and Franklin, 2002). The devastating prognosis associated with the social and economic impacts, has led to increased efforts to find therapies that provide functional recovery for people who undergo severe SCI (Blight, 2002 and van den Berg et al., 2010). According to previous studies, the use of OLP transplantation is a promising, though controversial,

repair strategy (Lu et al., 2001, Lu et al., 2002 and Steward Flavopiridol (Alvocidib) et al., 2006). In the present study we hypothesized that the OECs present in OLP grafts could create a favorable glial environment that would favor neurite and axonal outgrowth after thoracic spinal cord transection in rats. Thus, OLP transplantation could produce higher levels of hindlimb motor recovery when compared to respiratory lamina propria (RLP), which is a graft devoid of OECs. Additionally, we tested the efficacy of OLP transplantation in three different therapeutic windows (acutely, 2 weeks and 4 weeks post-injury), since another key aspect in the translation of this therapy to clinical practice is their potential to produce axonal regeneration even when transplantation is delayed after SCI. Fig.