During the sampling INCB024360 cell line period, the full-scale composting plant was operating under sub-optimal conditions; the temperature and pH rose slowly to the levels typical for thermophilic composting. The pilot-scale compost unit, in contrast, was operating under optimal conditions and the composting process progressed well. The temperature in the

pilot-scale compost rose quickly to the thermophilic stage. Within two days after feeding waste into the feeding end of the drum, the average temperature exceeded 50°C, while in the full-scale composting unit the thermophilic phase was reached only temporarily in the unloading end of the drum 3-4 days after feeding (average 45°C) and more consistently in the tunnel compartment (50-70°C), 4-7 days after feeding. Also the pH rose faster and to a higher level in the pilot-scale composting unit than in the full-scale composting plant (Table 1). In addition, the bulk density (g/l) was found to change IWR 1 during the processes (Table 1). 16S ribosomal RNA libraries For analysis of bacterial population diversity, 16S rRNA genes were amplified from the total DNA extracted

from compost samples. From the cloned fragment 1560 almost full-length 16S rRNA sequences were generated; 924 sequences from the pilot-scale unit and 636 from the full-scale composting plant. The suspected chimeric sequences (23) were removed before further analyses. Diversity of bacteria Of the 1560 sequences generated, a total of 522 OTUs unique to either the pilot or full-scale

facility were found with 99% sequence similarity clustering. A total of 267 sequences were found in samples from the full-scale composting plants and SPTLC1 275 sequences were present in the pilot-scale compost. Surprisingly, only 20 sequenced OTUs were found in both composting units. Also at the species level only a small fraction of the OTUs were shared. Out of 210 species found in the full-scale unit and 166 in the pilot-scale unit, only 32 were present in both. On the genus level the portion of shared sequences was Sepantronium larger. Out of 27 genera in the full-scale unit, and 41 in the pilot-scale unit, 18 were present in both. The sequences belonged to five bacterial phyla (Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria and Deinococcus-Thermus) based on a phylogenetic analysis. Despite the large difference in the distribution of bacterial sequences, most bacterial phyla observed were found in both composting units (Figure 2, Figure 3). Since sequences representing the Firmicutes were by far the largest group, this phylum was further divided into the classes Bacillales, Clostridia and Lactobacillales in order to study the community composition (Figure 2). Figure 2 Bacterial sequence clustering. Composition of bacterial communities in a) the full-scale process and b) in the pilot-scale process at different composting stages. Similarity of > 99% was used.

Another interesting difference observed was the maximum population density achieved. The PA23 wild type consistently reached a higher OD600 in stationary phase compared to PA23-443 (Figure 4). A similar altered pattern of growth has been observed ARRY-162 in vivo for gacS mutants of PA23 and 30–84 which exhibit a shorter lag phase and earlier entry into logarithmic growth phase [4, 29]. LTTRs have previously been implicated in the regulation of cellular growth factors. For example, the well-studied LTTR OxyR is involved in regulating the expression of various metabolic genes such as tRNA nucleotidyl transferases and synthetases, ribosomal proteins and QS-regulated targets [30]. Figure 4 Growth rate analysis

of wild-type PA23 and mutant PA23-443. Cells were grown in M9 minimal media supplemented with 1 mM MgSO4 and 0.2% glucose. Spectrophotometric optical densities were taken at 600 nm. Evofosfamide manufacturer Diamonds; PA23wt, circles; PA23-443. PtrA negatively affects motility Our iTRAQ proteomic data indicated upregulation of the flagellin and related hook-associated protein (MOK_01499) in PA23-443. Further inspection

of the locus tags upstream of MOK_01499 also indicated upregulation of proteins FliG (MOK_01489; Vdiff = +0.72) and FliS (MOK_01496; Vdiff = +0.66), although this upregulation was not considered significant. The upregulated flagellin and related hook-associated protein, therefore, is likely part of the Fli operon based on its proximity to upstream genes. To verify the results of the proteomic analysis, motility assays were conducted. As outlined in Table 4, swimming (flagellar) motility was almost 3-fold greater in PA23-443 compared to the wild type, indicating that PtrA is having a repressive effect on this phenotype. In a similar fashion, proteomic analysis

of a P. aeruginosa gacA mutant revealed a 7.5-fold and 8.8-fold increase in expression of a flagellin (FliC) and flagellar-capping protein (FliD), respectively [27]. Introduction of ptrA in trans caused a modest reduction in motility, but did not Methocarbamol fully restore the wild-type phenotype. It is important to bear in mind that for our complementation studies, multiple copies of the ptrA gene were provided rather than a single chromosomal copy. Because LTTRs bind both activation SC79 research buy binding sites and regulatory binding sites upstream of target genes [14], the number of copies of the regulator may be of critical importance for proper binding and subsequent regulation of target genes. This observation was noted with complementation studies involving the LTTR OxyR in restoration of rhamnolipid and pyocyanin production in P. aeruginosa[31]. When multiple copies of oxyR were present in the cell, the wild-type phenotype was not restored; whereas insertion of single chromosomal copy of the LTTR gene resulted in full complementation [31]. Table 4 Motility analysis of P.

A voltage gradient was applied (total of 40 kVh within 10 h, 50 μA/IPG strip). Prior to SDS-PAGE, the IPG

strips were equilibrated in gel loading buffer for 10 min (120 mM Tris pH 6.8, 20% (v/v) glycerol, 4% (w/v) SDS, 200 mM DTT and traces of bromphenol blue). The second dimension-electrophoresis was carried CBL0137 out at 10°C using 12%-acrylamide gels (18 × 18 cm). Gel analysis Protein spots were visualized with a Typhoon™ 9400 Series Variable Mode Imager (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). The resulting gel images were processed using DeCyder Differential Analysis Software v5.02 (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Protein spots were detected using the Differential In-gel Analysis (DIA) mode of ‘DeCyder’. The Biological Variation Analysis (BVA) mode allowed inter-gel matching on the basis of the in-gel standards (Cy2). Spot selleck products intensities were normalized to the internal standard. For each spot, averages and click here standard deviations of protein abundance were compared between the profiles of B. suis grown in rich medium and cultivated under starvation conditions. The Student’s t-test was applied to each set of matched spots. Significantly regulated proteins (p-value ≤ 0.05) were then identified by mass spectral analysis. To exclude

non-real spots prior to MALDI-TOF analysis, the three-dimensional displays of significant spots were also checked manually. Protein identification by mass spectral analysis Prior to spot-picking, 2D gels were stained with Coomassie to ensure that the majority of the unlabeled molecules of the proteins of interest were recovered for MALDI-MS analysis. Protein spots of interest

were manually picked and washed three times in 50 mM (NH4)2HCO3. Then, gel spots were dehydrated in 100% acetonitril for 5 min. After removal of the Nabilone supernatant, 1 μl protease-solution (0.05 μg/μl trypsin in 10 mM (NH4)2HCO3) was added and allowed to penetrate into the gel. Another 5–10 μl NH4HCO3-buffer (10 mM, in 30% acetonitril) were added to the gel plugs which were incubated overnight at 37°C for digestion. The samples were desalted in C18-ZipTips™ (Millipore, Bedford, MA, USA) according to manufacturer’s instructions. The desalted and concentrated peptides were eluted from the ZipTips™ on the MALDI targets with matrix solution (0.1% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA)/80% acetonitrile, equally mixed with 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid: 2-hydroxy-5-methoxybenzoic acid, 9:1). For analysis of the tryptic peptides, MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry was carried out using the Voyager-DE™ STR Biospectrometry Workstation (Applied Biosystems). The spectra were acquired in a positive reflectron mode (20 kV) and collected within the mass range of 700 to 4,200 Da. The autolytic fragments of trypsin acted as internal calibrants. The peptide mass fingerprint spectra were processed with the Data Explorer v4.9 Software (AB Sciex).

He died 13 days after admission. Discussion Although some biomarkers like lactate and C-reactive protein can be useful in the diagnosis of an acute abdomen, these cases demonstrate

that these parameters can mislead the physician and contribute to more diagnostic examinations or unnecessary invasive interventions like a laparotomy. As described in all cases the main suspicion was acute mesenteric ischemia. This is a complex disease with a high mortality rate [3]. Until now, no reliable parameters to help diagnose such serious disease have been found and a search to identify this factor continues. One of the markers that are frequently used is plasma lactate concentration. An increase of lactate levels indicates an anaerobe glucogenesis and therefore it is a parameter for inadequate perfusion, oxygenation and an estimate CB-839 nmr of tissue click here oxygen deficiency. Increased plasma lactate concentrations were observed in patients with mesenteric ischemia with a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 42% [3]. Yet, another study on patient with an acute abdomen and increased lactate levels in the ED, showed a sensitivity of 75% and specificity 39% when using lactate concentrations for the diagnosis of acute mesenteric ischemia

[4]. On the other hand the study of Lange et. al. [3] showed that elevation in lactate concentration can be due to other conditions as PD-0332991 in vitro well. For example general bacterial peritonitis and in about 50% of the cases with strangulated intestinal obstructions [3]. Furthermore, other conditions correlated with high lactate concentrations are (septic) shock, diabetic ketoacidosis, liver coma, renal failure and acute pancreatitis. When other conditions have been excluded, an increased lactate level often may indicate an

emergency abdominal condition. Some authors recommend an laparotomy in all patients with abdominal complaints and a raised plasma lactate level when other conditions correlated with increased lactate levels have been excluded [3]. However, we believe that this matter is more subtle as we observe that lactate levels are being www.selleck.co.jp/products/BIBW2992.html used as a parameter only for acute mesenterial ischemia. Our third case is an example of a patient without abdominal pain but with high lactate levels, probably due to liver failure. Based on the lactate levels, an unnecessary invasive diagnostic intervention, a laparotomy was performed. As a study concluded, the determination of lactate concentrations has no better sensitivity in establishing the diagnosis of patient with acute abdomen compared to clinical findings and normal laboratory examination [4]. Another biomarker often used in the emergency department to aid in the diagnosis of an acute abdomen is the C-reactive protein (CRP). Most studies have focused mainly on the use of this parameter in establishing the diagnosis of appendicitis.

Physical Review B 2000, 61:13840–13851.CrossRef 9. Rosenauer A, Oberst W, Litvinov D, Gerthsen D, Forster A, Schmidt R: Structural and chemical investigation of In(0.6)Ga(0.3)As Stranski-Krastanow layers buried in GaAs by transmission electron microscopy. Physical Review B 2000, 61:8276–8288.CrossRef 10. Fry PW, Itskevich IE, Mowbray DJ, Skolnick MS, Finley JJ, Barker JA, O’Reilly EP, Wilson LR, Larkin IA, Maksym PA, Hopkinson M, Al-Khafaji M, David JPR, Cullis AG, Hill G, Clark JC: Inverted electron–hole alignment in InAs-GaAs self-assembled quantum dots. Phys Rev Lett 2000, 84:733–736.CrossRef 11. Nuntawong N, Tatebayashi J, Wong PS, Huffaker

DL: Localized strain reduction in strain-compensated InAs/GaAs stacked quantum

dot structures. Appl Phys Lett 2007, 90:163121.CrossRef 12. Alonso-Alvarez D, Taboada AG, Ripalda JM, Alen B, Gonzalez Omipalisib concentration Y, Gonzalez L, Garcia JM, Briones F, Marti A, Luque A, Sánchez AM, Molina SI: Carrier recombination effects in strain compensated quantum dot stacks embedded in solar cells. Appl Phys Lett 2008, 93:123114.CrossRef 13. Jin-Phillipp NY, Phillipp F: Strain distribution in self-assembled InP/GaInP quantum dots. J Appl Phys 2000, 88:710–715.CrossRef 14. Srinivasan T, Singh SN, Tiwari U, Sharma RK, Muralidharan R, Rao DVS, Balamuralikrishnan R, Muraleedharan K: Structural and photoluminescence ISRIB supplier characteristics of molecular beam epitaxy-grown vertically aligned In0.33Ga0.67As/GaAs quantum dots. J Cryst Growth 2005, 280:378–384.CrossRef 15. Ouattara L, Ulloa JM, Mikkelsen A, Lundgren E, Koenraad PM, Borgstrom M, Samuelson L, Seifert W: Correlation lengths in stacked InAs quantum dot systems studied Selleckchem TPCA-1 by cross-sectional scanning tunnelling microscopy. Nanotechnology 2007, 18:145403.CrossRef 16. Molina SI, Ben T, Sales DL, Pizarro J, Galindo PL, Varela M, Pennycook SJ, Fuster D, Gonzalez Y, Gonzalez L: Determination of the strain generated PRKACG in InAs/InP quantum wires: prediction of nucleation sites. Nanotechnology 2006, 17:5652–5658.CrossRef 17. Shoji Y, Oshima R, Takata A, Okada Y: The effect

of spacer layer thickness on vertical alignment of InGaAs/GaNAs quantum dots grown on GaAs(3 1 1)B substrate. Physica E 2010, 42:2768–2771.CrossRef 18. Gutierrez M, Herrera M, Gonzalez D, Garcia R, Hopkinson M: Role of elastic anisotropy in the vertical alignment of In(Ga)As quantum dot superlattices. Appl Phys Lett 2006, 88:193118.CrossRef 19. Radon J: Ueber die Bestimmung von Funktionen durch ihre integralwerte laengs gewisser Mannigfaltigkeiten. Math-Phys Kl 1917, 69:262–277. 20. Lozano-Perez S: A guide on FIB preparation of samples containing stress corrosion crack tips for TEM and atom-probe analysis. Micron 2008, 39:320–328.CrossRef 21. Ke XX, Bals S, Cott D, Hantschel T, Bender H, Van Tendeloo G: Three-dimensional analysis of carbon nanotube networks in interconnects by electron tomography without missing wedge artifacts. Microsc Microanal 2010, 16:210–217.CrossRef 22.

In addition, as shown in Table 4, the relative percentage changes in WBC count accompanying exercise on both the first and last days of the training camp showed positive correlations with neutrophil Obeticholic counts and negative correlations with lymphocyte counts. Neutrophil and lymphocyte counts showed a negative correlation. In general, WBC count and neutrophil count are known to increase after intense exercise, while lymphocyte count is known to decrease, in athletes and healthy adults [14, 21]. Among the WBCs that increased after intense exercise, neutrophils induce inflammation, which is believed

to reduce lymphocyte count through pro-inflammatory cytokine and stress Daporinad cost hormone production, which in turn causes a reduction in immunological function [22–25]. The above observations suggest that the interval exercise bouts performed on the first and last days of the training camp induced an inflammatory state, thus reducing immunological function. Wee1 inhibitor In addition, no significant increase in WBC count was observed in the CT group on the first day of the training camp and the increase in neutrophil count and reduction in lymphocyte count accompanying exercise were significantly suppressed compared to the P group. These results indicate that CT intake

suppresses excessive increases in inflammatory reactions accompanying Sinomenine intense exercise, and thus suppresses the reduction of immunological function. Through analysis using mice, CT was shown to increase the levels of GSH in organisms, as well as increasing humoral immune responses and increasing antigen-specific antibody production [4]. NAC, a precursor

of GSH, was shown in clinical studies to significantly suppress the production of ROS from neutrophils increased through exercise [17–19]. These findings suggest that CT may suppress ROS production from neutrophils accumulated in skeletal muscles damaged through intense exercise, suppressing further accumulation of neutrophils and thus suppressing the excessive inflammatory reaction. Further, this suppression of excessive inflammatory reaction is believed to suppress the reduction of immunological function. To clarify these points, further analysis of GSH and ROS production from neutrophils in organisms during intense exercise as well as the effects of CT intake on oxidative stress are necessary. In this study, it is suggested that CT intake suppressed excessive inflammatory reaction on the first day of the training camp and suppressed reduction of immunological function. However, on the last day of the training camp, other than a tendency for CT intake to suppress increased WBC and myoglobin following the interval training workout, no significant effect was observed in comparison to the P group.

This value is less than that of SWNT2 (1.42 eV) but still in the same order of magnitude for a qualitative comparison. In the 2-point measurements of Zhou et al. [50], the contact resistance is included in their IVs, which might induce a barrier due to metal–semiconductor-metal junction

effects. This is excluded or at least minimized in our 4-point measurements, as the contact resistance is subtracted in our configuration. Furthermore, the estimated contact resistance R c of SWNT2 is less than 3R Q , which is reasonably too small to be considered as invasive or to induce a significant contact barrier [40]. Interestingly, from measurements on suspended (no substrate effects) and ‘ultraclean’ metallic SWNTs, a Mott insulating state was reported, NVP-BGJ398 purchase with energy gaps between 10 and 100 meV [51]. Specifically, for SWNTs with diameters similar to SWNT2, the energy barrier was between 70 and 80 meV, which is in good agreement with the measured barriers for SWNT2. However, to explore the nature of the insulating state in SWNT2, gating experiments are needed,

which is again beyond the scope of this letter. Figure 7 Low-bias current versus buy Cisplatin voltage graph of sample SWNT2 measured at 2, 5, and 10 K. Finally, the appearance of completely different properties for SWNT1 (TLL/CB) and SWNT2 (transition to an insulating state) at low temperatures and their relation with the observed strong interaction with the quartz substrate is currently not understood. Further theoretical and experimental efforts are underway to elucidate these effects. Conclusions In conclusion, a method is introduced to isolate and measure the electrical properties of individual SWNTs aligned on Sinomenine an ST-cut quartz substrate, from room temperature down to 2 K. The diameter and chirality of the measured SWNTs are accurately defined from

resonant Raman spectroscopy and AFM. A significant up-shift in the G-band of the Raman spectra of the SWNTs is observed, which increases with Lazertinib in vivo increasing SWNTs diameter and indicates a strong interaction with the quartz substrate. A semiconducting SWNT (diameter 0.84 nm) shows Tomonaga-Luttinger liquid and Coulomb blockade behaviors at low temperatures. Another semiconducting SWNT (diameter of 0.68 nm) exhibits a transition from the semiconducting state to an insulating state at low temperatures. These results elucidate some of the electrical transport properties of SWNTs on ST-cut quartz substrates, which can be useful for prospective device applications. Acknowledgements This study was supported by Nano-Integration Foundry (NIMS) in ‘Nanotechnology Platform Project’ operated by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), Japan. ESS would like to acknowledge the support and hospitality of NIMS during his visit as a Guest Researcher. References 1.

e., qP and qL) decreased gradually (Fig. 1): sun plants had higher values (about twofold) than in those kept in the shade (for definition of individual ChlF buy Palbociclib parameters see Tables 1, 2). Significant rise of electron transport rate (ETR) across PSII, as calculated from fluorescence data, was found in plants grown under HL (up to ~1,800 μmol photons m−2 s−1), while it was very low in the case of shade plants and did not change at higher light intensities (Fig. 1b). In these plants,

thermal dissipation of excitation energy, as expressed by non-photochemical quenching of ChlF (NPQ) and of quantum yield of non-photochemical quenching (ΦNPQ), showed similar trends to that shown by calculated ETR, but more JQ-EZ-05 in vitro energy was dissipated as heat between ~390 and ~1,160 μmol photons m−2 s−1 of light intensity (Fig. 1d, f). Data shown in subfigures a, c, and e of Fig. 1 will be discussed later. Fig. 1 Chlorophyll

a fluorescence parameters derived from the rapid light curves (at 0, 152, 246, 389, 554, 845, 1164, 1795, and 2629 μmol photons m−2 s−1, 15 s). a The photochemical efficiency of PSII (ΦPSII), b electron transport rate (ETR, inferred from fluorescence measurements after correction for different leaf absorbances, and assuming that PSII:PSI ratio is 1:1; Genty et al. 1989). c Photochemical quenching (qP) based on the Epigenetic Reader Domain inhibitor Tangeritin “puddle” model (connectivity parameter (p) between different PSIIs = zero). d Non-photochemical quenching (NPQ), e photochemical quenching (qP) based on the “lake” model [connectivity parameter (p) between PSII units = 1]. f Quantum yield of non-photochemical quenching (ΦNPQ). Measurements were performed on penultimate leaves of spring barley plants acclimated to different light intensities (open circle sun leaf—100 % of daylight, filled circle shade leaf—13 % of daylight, their entire growth period). Mean values ± SE from 4 replicates In shade plants, compared to sun plants, fast ChlF induction curve (the OJIP curve; see reviews: Stirbet and Govindjee 2011,

2012) showed no significant differences in F 0 and F m values and hence, the maximum quantum yield of PSII photochemistry ΦPo was almost unaffected by the leaf ambient light environment. However, the shape of fast ChlF induction (Fig. 2a) was not identical in sun and shade leaves suggesting possible differences in energy fluxes at the donor as well as at the acceptor side of PSII (Strasser et al. 2000); this conclusion is supported by the calculated ChlF parameters (Table 4). Fig. 2 a Chlorophyll a fluorescence induction curves at 3,500 μmol photons m−2 s−1 of continuous red light up to 1 s for the sun and the shade leaves. Dark adaptation was for 30 min (for other details, see the legend of Fig. 1).

Previous reports have suggested that greater genetic diversity exists among type A as compared to type B strains [2]. Our whole genome SNP based analysis of 12 type B isolates from North America and Russia appears to confirm this observation. However, SNP data obtained after inclusion of a Japanese type B strain (FRAN024) indicated a similar level of SNP diversity in type A and type B strains (Table 3). Sufficient SNP diversity was observed among type B strains to generate https://www.selleckchem.com/products/nu7441.html an internal structure in the phylogenetic tree (Figure 2) as well as to resolve all unique strains. The single F. learn more novicida isolate in our study, FRAN003 (U112), had the lowest base call rate (83.041%) and the highest number of SNPs (12,407)

among our samples. The low base call rate is a likely reflection of the sequence divergence between the F. novicida strain (U112) and the reference sequence on our resequencing chips. Rohmer et. al[11]. have reported a nucleotide sequence identity of 97.8% between the LVS and F. novicida U112 genomes. The differences in these two approaches may be due to the fact that array-based resequencing is sensitive to sequence divergence, and performs best with samples that are homologous with the reference sequence. In our global

SNP phylogenetic analysis, F. novicida (U112) is well separated from the F. tularensis isolates (Figure 2B). A number of molecular approaches Idasanutlin research buy have been used to better understand the diversity of Francisella [2, 21, 25–27]. New subdivisions within F. tularensis subspecies have been revealed by these approaches. Differing methods provide differing resolution as most of the methods sample only a subset of the whole genome in order to assess relationships among different isolates [2]. MLVA is considered to

provide the highest discriminatory power (i.e. strain level) [2, 21, 28]. PFGE typing has been used to identify four distinct type A genotypes, A1a, A1b, A2a and A2b [9], not previously observed by MLVA typing. PFGE typing combined with epidemiologic data revealed that the observed MYO10 genetic diversity among type A strains correlated with differences in clinical outcome and geographic distribution. A1b strains were associated with significantly higher mortality in humans as compared to A1a, A2 or type B strains. Type B strains display little or no genetic diversity by PFGE [14] and a number of other molecular methods [2, 10, 21–23]. Comparative whole-genome sequence analysis provides the highest level of discrimination among different strains, but has not been widely used due to the high cost of this method. Keim et al [2] have shown a whole-genome SNP phylogeny of Francisella using ~8000 syntenic SNPs from the published whole genome sequences of seven strains. Use of only two type A and two type B genomes was sufficient to reveal that type A strains differ greatly from each other unlike type B strains. More recently, the phylogenetic structure of F.

It is unknown whether there is an epidemiological connection between disease in aquarium fish and reef fish, e.g. due to capture of reef fish or release of aquarium fish into the wild. Using standard eBURST group definitions, ST260 but not ST261 is recognized as part of CC552 (Figure 2). However, ST261 is a DLV of multiple CC552 members and could be considered a member of the same group (Figure 3). This group also includes ST246, which has been isolated from trout, and ST257 and 259, which have been isolated from tilapia [14, 16]. ST258, which has been isolated from striped bass [16], is loosely connected to this group,

which does not include any isolates from homeothermic host species. Using the 3-set genotyping system, no surface protein genes or MGEs were detected check details among isolates from this group, further supporting learn more that it is not closely related to any of the known clonal complexes

of S. agalactiae found in humans. ST261 was recently discovered in doctor fish (Gara rufa) that are used in foot spas to remove dead skin from people’s feet and concern has been expressed that repeated exposure of fish-adapted SU5402 purchase strains to such an environment could eventually lead to human infections [45]. In the laboratory, members of the group that includes ST260 and ST261 do not grow well at 37°C, which may explain their current absence from homeothermic species. A vaccine to protect fish from non-haemolytic S. agalactiae is commercially available, but this vaccine does not provide protection to haemolytic strains [14]. Thus, vaccination of fish can be used to limit production losses in some situations, but it does not protect against the most commons strains in Southeast Asia or against zoonotic infections from fish or fish products. Conclusions Based on standardized molecular typing of housekeeping genes and virulence genes, S. agalactiae strains that have previously been associated with asymptomatic carriage and adult invasive disease in humans can also be found in

fish, frogs and sea mammals. In particular, strains belonging to ST23, which is a common carriage strain in humans, were associated with seals, where they may be indicators of environmental pollution rather than causative agents of disease. ST23 was not identified in any fish. Strains belonging to ST7 were associated with a bullfrog and Astemizole fish from South-East Asia whilst strains belonging to ST283 and showing the same virulence gene profile as human invasive isolates were isolated from fish in Asia. This suggests that there may be exposure of humans and fish to similar environmental sources of ST7 and ST283, or transmission of S. agalactiae between the different host species. Finally, strains belonging to ST260 and ST261 were associated with fish from the Americas, Europe and Australia. These strains, and other members of their clonal complex, have only been reported from poikilotherms.