, 2012). A comparison of the neural differentiation potential of different ESC and iPSC lines revealed a large variation in differentiation efficiency, and it is likely that maturation stages and functional properties of the resulting neurons are also variable (Hu et al., 2010). The second limitation is related to the cumbersome, variable, and slow procedures needed for deriving neurons with functional properties from ESCs or iPSCs. Generating neurons by differentiation of ESCs or iPSCs requires months of tissue culture procedures and renders large-scale studies difficult (Johnson et al., 2007). Moreover, differentiation

of ESCs and iPSCs into neurons depends on specific environmental factors such as pharmacological agents and bioactive proteins that may be difficult Baf-A1 supplier to obtain with a consistent composition, injecting a further element of variation (Soldner and Jaenisch, 2012). The two major limitations of current technologies for generating human neurons

outlined above motivated us and others to develop methods for direct conversion of human fibroblasts into induced neurons, referred to as iN cells click here (Pang et al., 2011; Ambasudhan et al., 2011; Qiang et al., 2011; Pfisterer et al., 2011a, 2011b; Yoo et al., 2011; Caiazzo et al., 2011; Son et al., 2011). Although these efforts were successful and allow rapid production of human iN cells, all of the currently available protocols for generating human iN cells (as opposed to mouse iN cells) suffer from relatively low yields

and low efficiency and are further hampered by the limited availability and renewability of fibroblasts as starting materials. Moreover, the resulting iN cells often exhibited decreased competence for synapse formation. Specifically, we (Pang et al., 2011) and others (Pfisterer et al., 2011a; Son et al., 2011) found that the same three transcription factors that convert mouse fibroblasts into iN cells (Brn2, Ascl1, and MytL1; Vierbuchen et al., 2010) also transdifferentiate human fibroblasts into iN cells Mephenoxalone when combined with a fourth transcription factor (NeuroD1), a process that may be additionally facilitated by coexpression of microRNAs (Yoo et al., 2011; Ambasudhan et al., 2011). However, apart from the limited capabilities of iN cells produced by these procedures, these experiments did not clarify the minimal requirement of defined factors for transdifferentiating human nonneuronal cells into neurons and suggested that ancillary factors, such as specific culture conditions, may introduce further variability into these transdifferentiation protocols. Together, these features make analysis of disease-related phenotypes using human iN cells difficult, especially since these protocols do not generate large amounts of iN cells that are fully competent to form synapses. To address these problems, we here developed approaches that allow rapid and reproducible production of human iN cells from ESCs or iPSCs.