This novel regulatory circuitry between HIF-1α, HIPK2 and p53 molecules gives a mechanistic explanation of the p53 apoptotic inhibition in response

to drug under hypoxia in those tumors that retain a nonfunctional wild-type p53 [58]. Interestingly, HIF-1α may be targeted by zinc ions that induce HIF-1α proteasomal degradation [59], opening a way to reactivate the hypoxia-inhibited HIPK2/p53 pathway that could be exploited in vivo. This finding was corroborated by cDNA microarray studies in hypoxia-treated cancer cells, showing that zinc ions indeed reverse the hypoxia-induced gene transcription [60]. In summary, several different mechanisms that inhibit HIPK2 in tumors were identified, leading Sotrastaurin order mainly to impairment of p53 response to drugs but also to induction of oncogenic pathways important in tumor progression, learn more angiogenesis and chemoresistance such as Wnt/β-catenin and HIF-1 (Figure 2). During hypoxia, HIPK2 can be reactivated by zinc treatment that becomes a valuable tool to be used in combination with anticancer drugs to restore the HIPK2/p53 pathway. Figure 2 Schematic representation of HIPK2 activation/inactivation. HIPK2 can be activated by: drugs, IR, UV, roscovitin. The so far known mechanisms of HIPK2 inhibition are: cytoplasmic localization, hypoxia, gene mutation, LOH, and HPV23 E6 or

HMGA1 overexpression. HIPK2 inhibits the oncogenic Wnt/β-catenin and HIF-1 pathways. HIPK2 activates p53 for apoptotic function and inhibits the antiapoptotic CtBP, MDM2 and ΔNp63α proteins. A novel role of HIPK2 in controlling cytokinesis Bortezomib research buy and preventing tetraploidization Recently,

an unexpected subcellular localization and biological function of HIPK2 in cytokinesis was identified [61]. In cytokinesis daughter cells separate by constriction of the cytoplasmic intercellular bridge between the two re-forming nuclei at the final step of cell division. Failure of cytokinesis may generate tetraploid cells. With the exception of rare cell types, such as hepatocytes, which can exist as stable tetraploids, tetraploid cells have chromosome unstable state that can lead to aneuploidy and ultimately to tumorigenic transformation [62]. Alike several abscission’s regulatory and effector components, HIPK2 and its novel target, the histone H2B, was shown to localize within the intercellular bridge at the midbody during cytokinesis. HIPK2 binds directly histone H2B and phosphorylates it at serine residue 14 (Ser14). Despite the apoptotic functions of both HIPK2 and the S14 phosphorylated form of H2B (H2B-S14P), the two proteins co-localize at the midbody (Figure 3), independently of the presence of chromatin in the cleavage plane, DNA damage, and/or apoptosis.