In fact, an inner KT protein Ndc10 plays the central role in S. cerevisiae (Fig. 2a), while the middle KT proteins – Mis6 and Spc7 – play governing roles to a great extent in S. pombe (Fig. 2b). This process is remarkably diverged with a complex interdependence among many essential KT proteins from various layers in C. albicans (Fig. 2c). Unravelling this fascinating molecular

mechanism of KT assembly in many organisms will improve our understanding of how the KT assembly pathways coevolved with the CEN DNA during speciation. We thank B. Suma (Central instrumentation facility, Molecular Lapatinib purchase Biology and Genetics Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research) for confocal microscopy and image processing. We are thankful to the members of Sanyal laboratory for insightful comments. We express our regret to our colleagues whose work could not be cited due to space limitations. “
“Human milk oligosaccharides (HMO) are prominent among the functional components of human breast milk. While HMO have potential applications in both infants and adults, this potential is limited by the difficulties Rapamycin cell line in manufacturing these complex structures. Consequently, functional alternatives such as galacto-oligosaccharides are under investigation, and nowadays, infant formulae are supplemented with galacto-oligosaccharides

to mimic the biological effects of HMO. Recently, approaches toward the production of defined human milk oligosaccharide structures using microbial, fermentative methods employing single, appropriately engineered microorganisms Acetophenone were introduced. Furthermore, galactose-containing hetero-oligosaccharides have attracted an increasing amount of attention because they are structurally more closely related to HMO. The synthesis of these novel oligosaccharides, which resemble the core of HMO, is of great interest for

applications in the food industry. “
“The polymerization of free nucleotides into new genetic elements by DNA polymerases in the absence of DNA, called ab initio DNA synthesis, is a little known phenomenon. DNA polymerases from prokaryotes can effectively synthesize long stretches of linear double-stranded DNA in the complete absence of added primer and template DNAs. Ab initio DNA synthesis is extremely enhanced if a restriction endonuclease or nicking endonuclease is added to the reaction with DNA polymerase. The synthesized ab initio DNA have various tandem repeats. Sequences similar to those of ab initio DNA products are found in many natural genes. The significance of ab initio DNA synthesis is that genetic information can be created directly by protein. The ab initio DNA synthesis is considered a non-specific synthesis in various DNA amplification techniques. In this review, we present the main studies devoted to this phenomenon and introduce possible mechanisms of this synthesis from our current knowledge.