2012; Ghasemi et al. 2013). There is extensive evidence for a metabolic role (indicated by the presence of GLUT4) but also, as these reviews summarize in more detail, evidence for nonmetabolic neuromodulatory effects on synaptic function, neurotransmission,

and neurite development, which do not seem to be ostensibly related to any metabolic effects. However, insulin is best known for Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical its role in regulating whole-body metabolism and in the stimulation of glucose uptake in peripheral tissue following postprandial rises in circulating glucose levels. The question therefore Carfilzomib price arises as to why a hormone that controls metabolic function should also have a role in signaling processes related to cognitive activity. Cognitive function entails an acute Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical increase in energy requirement

so intuitively a role for insulin signaling connecting glucose uptake to cognitive function would seem the most parsimonious explanation for the observed links. The basis for the connection is most likely to lie in the specific kinetics of insulin-mediated glucose uptake. In the brain, glucose uptake occurs primarily via GLUT1 and GLUT3, which are independent of insulin (Mueckler 1994). GLUT1 facilitates a continual Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical basal level of glucose uptake (Vannucci 1994). Following initial uptake across the blood–brain barrier, subsequent uptake Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical from the interstitium into neurones occurs via GLUT3 (Mueckler 1994; Simpson et al. 2007). Compared with plasma glucose concentrations, the interstitial glucose concentration in the brain is relatively low, around 2 mmol/L (Silver and Erecinska 1994). GLUT3 has a low Michaelis constant (Km), for glucose uptake, around 1.4 mmol/L (Gould et al. 1991; Simpson et al. 2007), so is readily saturated at low glucose concentrations. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical The GLUT3 transporter therefore operates at near maximal capacity even at low ambient glucose concentrations (Gould et al. 1991). While this allows

a steady supply of glucose to the brain, the scope for rapid increase in transport during increased cognitive activity via GLUT3 is limited. Sustained cognitive activity hugely increases the requirement for glucose and studies in humans confirm increased glucose uptake in association with cognitive activity (Fox et al. 1988; Chen et al. 1993). Invasive animal studies STK38 using microdialysis techniques also demonstrate rapid decreases in interstitial glucose concentrations during cognitive activity (McNay et al. 2000). Furthermore, McNay et al. (2010) has also demonstrated that hippocampally mediated spatial memory tasks in rats are limited by glucose availability. Neuronal glucose uptake from the interstitium is primarily mediated via GLUT3 and as outlined earlier, because of the specific kinetics, glucose transporter mechanisms at this step are not believed to be rate limiting.