The system is characterized by two time scales, the one for strategy update, beta(S), and the other for weight

INCB018424 adjustment, beta(W). We find that, under a mean-field approximation, the asymptotic behavior of the system is described by the replicator equation with an effective payoff matrix, which is a combination of the original game matrix A and its transpose, AT. Both analytical and numerical results show that such an adaptive weight adjustment mechanism dramatically promotes evolution of cooperation. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The older neurocentric view of the central nervous system (CNS) has changed radically with the growing understanding of the many essential functions of astrocytes. Advances in our understanding of astrocytes include new observations about their structure, organization, function and supportive actions to other cells. Although the contribution of astrocytes to the process of brain injury has not been clearly defined, it is thought that their ability to provide support to neurons after cerebral damage is critical. Astrocytes play a fundamental role in the pathogenesis of brain injury-associated neuronal death, and this secondary injury is primarily a consequence of the failure

of astrocytes to support the essential metabolic needs of neurons. These needs include K(+) buffering, glutamate clearance, brain antioxidant defense, close metabolic coupling with neurons, and the modulation of neuronal excitability. In this review, we will focus on astrocytic activities that can both protect and endanger neurons, and discuss how PD 332991 manipulating these functions provides a novel and important strategy to enhance neuronal survival and improve the outcome following brain injury. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd and the

Japan Neuroscience Society. All rights reserved.”
“ATP-sensitive K(+) (K(ATP)) channels are distributed in a variety of cell types, including hippocampal neurons. These channels provide a link between electrical activity of cell membranes and cellular metabolism. The activity of K(ATP) channels in hippocampal H19-7 neurons treated with or without short interfering RNAs (siRNAs) directed against Selleck HA 1077 Kir6.2 mRNA was investigated in this study. In single-channel recordings, cell exposure to diazoxide (30 mu M) significantly prolonged the mean open time of K(ATP), channels: however, neither closed-time kinetics nor the single-channel conductance of the channel was altered by this compound. However, in cells transfected with Kir6.2 siRNAs, diazoxide-stimulated activity of K(ATP) channels was abolished. Based on single-channel recordings, the activity of K(ATP) channels was mathematically constructed in a Markovian manner. The simulated activity of single K(ATP) channels was incorporated in a modeled hippocampal neuron to assess how any changes in K(ATP)-channel activity affect burst firing of action potentials (APs). The modeled neuron was adopted from the model of Xu and Clancy (2008).