Water saturation shift referencing (WASSR) [28] Wortmannin manufacturer is one of the most commonly used techniques to

correct for this shift; however, the method requires extra scans possibly before and after the CEST imaging. Using a model-based approach eliminates the additional scan(s) required because the shift can be determined directly from the collected spectrum as part of the model fitting [29]. Performing model-based quantitative analysis of the CEST effect for CW-CEST is simple and is generally achieved using the analytical solution to the Bloch–McConnell equations. However, CW-CEST is not feasible in clinical applications due to specific absorption rate (SAR) and hardware limitations, making pulsed-CEST the only viable irradiation scheme for clinical translation currently. Natural Product Library Finding the proton MR behavior in response to time varying RF power as present in the pulsed-CEST scheme for model-based analysis is time consuming because the solution to the Bloch–McConnell equations must be arrived at either using a numerical differential equation solver or discretizing the pulses into a series of short continuous RF segments. In the latter case, referred to here as the discretization method, the individual segments are solved using the simple analytical solution

for CW-CEST with the magnetization being propagated through each of the segments, the final values from one segment serving as the initial conditions for the next one [25] and [30]. Due to the combination of the repeated calculations required in the discretization method and the multiple iterations within the optimization used for model-based strategy, the analysis of pulsed-CEST is often much slower than its continuous counterpart. Hence, pulsed-CEST is often treated as CW-CEST by finding the equivalent

average field (AF) [31] and [32] or power (AP) [33] of the pulse train to perform the analysis using the faster solution to the Bloch–McConnell equations under continuous saturation. Sodium butyrate Recently, studies have shown that a continuous approximation (both AF and AP) produces narrower off-resonance excitations when compared with pulsed saturation [33] and that the CESTR is different for pulsed-CEST and CW-CEST when the exchange rate is more than 50 s−1[30]. These raise the issue whether pulsed-CEST can be analyzed via the equivalent CW-CEST or a discretization method must be used. In this study, the differences in the z-spectra from a pulsed-CEST experiment and the equivalent continuous (AF and AP) approximation are examined using simulations to determine the validity of the latter for the analysis of pulsed-CEST data. Additionally, model-based quantitative analysis of pulsed-CEST data from a tissue-like phantom using the continuous approximation and discretization methods are compared.

Furthermore, their

improvement was greater at 6 months follow-up. Condition was also apredictor of changes in depression over time (p < 0.001). Patients with depression and patients with pain had higher levels of anxiety at baseline compared to patients with COPD and patients with diabetes and their improvement was greater at 6 months follow-up. RAD001 ITT analysis produced similar results. At baseline 39.8% of patients were clinically anxious (caseness (≥11)) and at 6 months follow-up this had significantly reduced to 29.7% (p < 0.001). Compared with baseline, 17% moved from clinical to non-clinical anxiety, 7% moved from non-clinical to clinical and 76% stayed the same. At baseline 25.6% of patients were clinically depressed

(caseness (≥11)) and at 6 months follow-up this had significantly reduced to 16.0% (p < 0.001). Compared with baseline, 15% moved from clinical to non-clinical depression, 6% moved from non-clinical to clinical and 79% stayed the same. Patients’ self-management skills in all eight heiQ domains significantly improved 6 months after attending the SMP: Health Directed Behavior: (p = 0.028); Positive and Active Engagement; Emotional check details Well-Being; Self-Monitoring and Insight; Constructive Attitude Shift; Skills and Technique Acquisition (all p < 0.001); Social Integration and support; p = 0.002, and Health Service Navigation (p = 0.012). Effect sizes ranged from 0.67 for Skills and Technique Acquisition to 0.17 for Health Service Navigation ( Table 2). Condition was a predictor of change in three of the domains: patients

with depression reported a statistically significant improvement over time on Positive and Active Engagement, Constructive Attitude Shift (both p < 0.001) and Social Integration and Support (p < 0.002). Patients with diabetes also reported an improvement in this domain (p = 0.03). ITT analysis produced Edoxaban similar results. About a quarter of patients showed substantial improvements in self-management skills, the exceptions being skill and technique acquisition (35.4%) improvement and health service navigation (18.3%) ( Table 4). The WHO has called upon all countries to provide interventions, including self-care interventions, to address the worldwide LTC epidemic [29]. This study, which describes an evaluation of a group-based SMP carried out in a real world health care setting showed that, it has the potential to improve patient activation, quality of life, psychological distress and self-management skills. We do not know the total number of LTC patients who were approached by health care staff at each site to register with the SMP recruitment helpline. We do know that 30% of patients who contacted the recruitment helpline did not subsequently attend the SMP.

This seems to be correlated with natural population dynamics of those buy Ku-0059436 species in Baltic Sea ( Dippner et al., 2000, Möllmann and Köster, 2002, Renz and Hirche, 2006, Szaniawska, 1977, Szulz et al., 2012 and Wiktor and Żmijewska, 1985). Higher production rates of Acartia spp. and T. longicornis also fit to the trend observed by Möllmann and Köster (2002) and Renz et al. (2007) in the central Baltic. Although observed production rates were few times lower than those noticed by Hansen et al. (2006) than may be related to flaws in our methodology as well as long-term variability. The latter seems to be indicated by the production rates

noticed in 2007 which were much closer in value to those observed by Hansen et al. (2006). A similar dynamics of Copepod secondary production was recorded by Kang and Kang (2005) BIBF-1120 for Acartia steueri. For over 2 years of research seasonal production rate for this copepod was the highest in summer (0.47 mg/C m−2), while the lowest values were observed

in winter. Similarly to the Gulf of Gdańsk secondary production rates does not exceed 0.1 mg/C m−2. Pseudocalanus sp. is one of the key species in the Baltic Sea ( Corkett and McLaren, 1978, Renz and Hirche, 2006 and Renz et al., 2007), serving as a major food item for many commercially important fish species. Production rates observed for this species in Gulf of Gdańsk were low in comparison to that observed in Central Baltic ( Renz et al., 2007); however this was most likely connected to relatively low depth in investigated Masitinib (AB1010) area. Möllmann and Köster (2002) observed highest production rates of this species in Bornholm Basin in late spring and summer, with values in the range of 4–6 mg C m−2, which is around two to three times higher than that observed in this study. In comparison of daily mortality rates of investigated species, lowest fluctuations occur in case of Acartia spp. Throughout the study there was a visible trend of increased mortality during spring and summer. This coincides with the observations made by Möllmann and Köster (2002), which implicates that high mortality rates of Acartia spp., T. longicornis and

Pseudocalanus sp. in spring and summer may be related to clupeid fish predation ( Köster et al., 2001). For T. longicornis our results show a significant difference in mortality between different copepodite stages. In winter and autumn the highest mortality applies for stages CI/CII, and in the summer for CV. Concentrating on summer, we can compare our results of daily mortality rate with those provided by Möllmann and Köster (2002). In the summer of 2006 and 2007, the average mortality rate for CI/CII was in the range 0.10–0.25, while in Möllmann and Köster value of mortality in the years 1978–1996 ranged from 0.0 to 0.16, which may indicate a greater predation by fish on T. longicornis or deterioration of environmental conditions affecting this species in The Gulf of Gdańsk. Pseudocalanus sp.

As shown in Fig. 1, three-dimensional structural analyses were performed by the SkyScan software for the following regions: (1) 0.5-mm-long sections at proximal (25% of the bones’ length from their proximal ends), proximal/middle (37%), middle (50%) and distal (75%) sites in cortical bone of the tibiae; The parameters

evaluated included periosteally enclosed volume, bone volume and medullary volume in the regions of cortical bone and percent bone volume (bone volume/tissue volume), trabecular number and trabecular thickness in the trabecular regions. After scanning by μCT, the bones were dehydrated, cleared and embedded in methyl methacrylate as previously described [33]. Transverse segments were Selleckchem Sotrastaurin obtained by cutting with an annular diamond saw. Images of calcein and alizarin-labelled

bone sections were visualized using the argon 488-nm laser and the HeNe 543-nm laser, respectively, of a confocal laser scanning microscope (LSM 510; Carl Zeiss MicroImaging GmbH, Jena, Germany) at similar regions as the μCT analysis. In the cortical regions, periosteal and endosteal labels and inter-label bone areas were measured as newly formed bone area at each region and normalized by total cortical bone area using ImageJ software (version 1.42; http://rsbweb.nih.gov/ij/) [30]. All data are shown as mean ± SE. Body weight was compared by one-way ANOVA. In the analysis of bones, the left and right sides in each group were compared by paired t-test, and then those in all three groups by one-way ANOVA followed by a post hoc Bonferroni or Dunnett T3 test. Statistical selleck screening library analysis was performed using SPSS for Windows (version

17.0; SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL), and p < 0.05 was considered as significant. As shown in Table 1 and Table 2, there were no statistically significant differences in body weight or longitudinal lengths of the tibiae, fibulae, femora, ulnae and radii. Analysis by μCT showed that in the cortical regions of the tibiae in the DYNAMIC + STATIC group, Cobimetinib mouse periosteally enclosed and cortical bone volumes in the right loaded side were markedly higher than those of the contra-lateral non-loaded side at the proximal (+15.5 ± 1.0% and +35.9 ± 3.2%, respectively; p < 0.01), proximal/middle (+18.8 ± 0.6% and +32.7 ± 1.6%, respectively; p < 0.01) and middle (+13.3 ± 2.2% and +24.0 ± 2.2%, respectively; p < 0.01) sites ( Table 3; Fig. 2A). There were no significant differences at the distal site. Medullary volume in the cortical region of the right loaded tibiae was smaller compared to that of the left tibiae at the proximal site (− 10.2 ± 2.8%; p < 0.01). In contrast to these differences between loaded and non-loaded bones in the DYNAMIC + STATIC group, there were no significant differences in the periosteally enclosed bone volume, cortical bone volume or medullary volume between the left and right tibiae in the STATIC or NOLOAD group.

Fig. 1B shows that MEL totally

prevent Prist-induced in vitro lipoperoxidation [F(7,24) = 8.805; P < 0.001]. FG 4592 These results indicate that reactive species are involved in Prist-induced increase of lipid peroxidation. The next set of experiments was carried out to evaluate the in vitro effect of Prist on carbonyl and sulfhydryl content in cortical supernatants from young rats, which are parameters that evaluate protein oxidative damage. Prist significantly increased carbonyl formation at 100 μM and higher concentrations (up to 87%) [F(4,19) = 10.409; P < 0.01] ( Fig. 2A). This branched-chain fatty acid also provoked an enhancement of sulfhydryl oxidation (up to 33%) [F(4,25) = 18.877; P < 0.001] in a dose-dependent manner [β = −0.860; P < 0.001] ( Fig. 2B). Considering that carbonyl originates from the attack of free radicals to proteins and the sulfhydryl groups are oxidized by these reactive radicals, it is therefore presumed that Prist induces protein oxidative damage. The non-enzymatic antioxidant defenses were also investigated by assessing the concentrations of GSH, the naturally occurring antioxidant found in the brain, in the presence of Prist in cortical supernatants. It can be seen in Fig. 3A that Prist significantly Trametinib solubility dmso diminished GSH levels (up to 28%) in a dose-dependent manner [F(4,19) = 19.489; P < 0.001] [β = −0.845; P < 0.001]. G protein-coupled receptor kinase It is therefore

concluded that Prist reduces the major brain antioxidant defense.

It was also tested whether the antioxidants MEL (1000 μM), TRO (10 μM), combination of SOD plus CAT (20 mU/mL each) or L-NAME (750 μM) could prevent Prist-induced decrease of GSH levels in cortical supernatants. Fig. 3B shows that MEL [F(5,24) = 30.334; P < 0.001] fully prevented and TRO [F(5,24) = 30.334; P < 0.001] attenuated Prist-induced decrease of GSH levels. The data indicate that Prist-elicited diminution of GSH concentrations occurred via reactive oxygen species. In order to evaluate whether Prist could directly affect thiol groups in a cell free medium, we exposed a commercial GSH solution (150 μM) to 200 μM Prist for 1 h in the absence of brain supernatants. Fig. 4 shows that Prist per se did not modify GSH levels, whereas N-ethylmaleimide (NEM, 150 μM) (positive control) markedly oxidized GSH. The data clearly indicate that Prist does not behave as a direct oxidant. Finally, we assessed whether nitrogen reactive species were involved in Prist pro-oxidant effects by investigating the effect of Prist on nitrate and nitrite production. It can be seen in Table 1 that Prist did not induce nitrogen reactive species generation in cerebral cortex from young rats. Taken together these observations suggest that the pro-oxidant effects of Prist were mainly due to reactive oxygen species.

Previous studies have shown that many multigene families, including proteins of the immune system, evolved according to a mechanism defined as the birth-and-death

process (Nei and Rooney, 2005). this website This process was reported for mammalian β-defensin genes (Morrison et al., 2003), bovine defensin genes (Liu et al., 2009) and α-defensin genes (Das et al., 2010), and may explain the degree of diversity amongst the sequences in Anolis carolinensis ( Dalla Valle et al., 2012). The unusually high degree of sequence variation in the mature peptide produced by the paralogous and in some cases orthologous genes implies extensive specialization and species-specific adaptation ( Semple et al., 2006). Comparative studies are important in determining patterns of evolution and function of the innate immune system. In this work, we describe new β-defensin-like genes in Brazilian pitvipers of the Bothrops and Lachesis genera, where we analyzed them phylogenetically and Selleckchem Androgen Receptor Antagonist reconciled the species tree with gene tree to infer duplication/speciation

nodes of these β-defensin-like genes. The snakes studied in this work were Bothrops alternatus (Estiva – MG, IBSP 77.198), B. atrox (Rio Branco – AC, IBSP 79.765), B. diporus (Blumenal – SC, IBSP 60.323), B. insularis (Queimada Grande Island – SP), B. erythromelas (Ibitira – BA, IBSP 79.766), B. jararaca (Embu Guaçu – SP), B. jararacussu (Ubatuba – SP), B. leucurus (Porto Seguro – BA, IBSP 79.100), B. mattogrossensis (N. Sra do Livramento – MT, IBSP 77.705), B. neuwiedi (Baependi – MG, IBSP 74.566), B. pauloensis (Frutal – MG, IBSP 71.111), Crotalus durissus, Lachesis muta (Northeast Brazil). We used livers and scales from snakes deposited in the Tissue Collection of Alphonse Hoge Herpetological Collection at the Butantan Institute and the blood from B. insularis snakes, kept alive in the Ecology and Evolution Laboratory, and from L. muta, kept in the Herpetology Laboratory, both at the Butantan Institute.

The DNA was purified from liver tissues (Ausubel et al., 2000), scales (Fetzner, 1999) or blood (ZR Genomic DNA Tissue kit, ZymoResearch), which was then quantified at 260 nm using the NanoDrop ND-2000c spectrophotometer. The forward and reverse primers H010 (5′-AAGCAGTCTCAGCATGAAGAT-3′) and 3′UTRas (5′-GGCACTCTCAGGTCCTTGGCCAT-3′) were designed on the basis of crotamine (Rádis-Baptista et al., 2003) and crotasin Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (Rádis-Baptista et al., 2004) gene sequences to amplify β-defensin-like sequences. A 50 μl reaction mix contained 100–1000 ng DNA sample, 0.1 μM each primer, 1.25 U Taq DNA Polymerase Platinum (Invitrogen), buffer with the addition of 1.5 mM MgCl2, and 0.2 mM dNTPs mix. The amplification process used an initial denaturation step of 4 min at 94 °C, followed by 30 cycles of 45 s at 94 °C, 45 s at 52.5, 55 or 58 °C and 45 s at 72 °C, and finally 1 min at 72 °C. The amplified DNA was purified, after electrophoresis on a 1% agarose gel, using the Zymoclean Gel DNA Recovery kit (ZymoResearch).

Adverse events included mild pancreatitis in 3 patients (5%, ASGE threshold 7%), and 1 episode of moderate bleeding GKT137831 clinical trial (ASGE threshold 2%). In addition there was 1 episode of sphincterotomy clot adherence leading to biliary obstruction requiring repeat ERCP within 1 week. Overall, 5 (8%) patients

experienced a complication. Interestingly, 3 (60%) of these 5 had sickle cell disease. This study demonstrates that pediatric gastroenterologists can perform ERCP for choledocholithiasis, a grade 2 ERCP, with acceptable cannulation and stone extraction rates and acceptable adverse event rates as defined by ASGE. The same is likely true for more complex procedures given appropriate experience, but additional research is needed. “
“There is no standardized method for teaching endoscopy in pediatric gastroenterology. Acquisition of skills may vary widely among institutions, depending on the instruction styles of attending endoscopists, amount of endoscopy exposure for fellows, and availability of additional training tools (i.e. simulators). To validate a part-task training box for the objective assessment of endoscopic proficiency in pediatric gastroenterology providers. The training box was developed based on our prior Selleck Epigenetic inhibitor work in kinematic analysis of maneuvers and deconstruction of the colonoscopic examination. The training box contains 5 tasks: polypectomy,

retroflexion, torque, tip deflection, and navigation/loop reduction. Each task was scored using a system previously developed from repeated trials with a 5 minute time limit per task. Training levels included novices, pediatric gastroenterology fellows, and pediatric gastroenterology attendings from 2 academic institutions. No participant had prior experience with the training box beforehand. Data was collected on years of experience and total number of procedures TCL performed. Several subjects of different experience levels participated

in multiple sessions with the training box to assess the learning curve on this particular mode of training. A total of 36 subjects were enrolled in the study: 10 novices, 12 fellows (2-1st years, 5-2nd years, and 5-3rd years), and 14 attendings. Novices (including 1st year fellows) had a mean total score of 52.5 ± 10.2. Senior fellows (2nd and 3rd year) had a mean score of 248.5 ± 32.0. Attendings had a mean score of 212.1 ± 20.2. Senior fellows scored significantly higher than novices (p<0.001). Senior fellows’ scores were not significantly different from attendings (p=0.97). Score results are shown in Table 1. Individual scores were highest on the polypectomy task. However, this study was not powered to detect differences in performance on individual tasks. Several participants repeated the box trainer more than once, most of whom demonstrated improvement in scores, suggesting that there is a learning curve for this training modality.

A feasibility study recently reported 10 people voluntarily fasting for 48 to 140 hours before treatment and for 5 to 56 hours after receiving various different chemotherapeutic agents [19]. Minimal adverse effects were described during fasting, and most subjects maintained that fewer chemotherapy-related toxicities were experienced after cycles for which they fasted at the time of treatment. However, to the authors’ knowledge, a formal prospective study has not evaluated

the effects of fasting on delayed-type CINV. A reduced incidence of anticipatory and acute CINV in dogs, both of which can contribute to the delayed-type Small molecule library cost in people, makes the canine species ideal for the study of delayed-type CINV. Herein, we report the findings of a prospective, randomized study using a crossover design to primarily evaluate the effects of fasting on delayed-type CINV in cancer-bearing dogs. Because IGF-1 levels have been implicated as playing an

important role in selective chemosensitization in mouse models and could have been affected by fasting, serum IGF-1 concentrations in both fasted and fed dogs were determined Selleck Sirolimus from samples collected immediately before doxorubicin administration. The effects of fasting on the incidence and severity of other commonly observed doxorubicin-induced toxicities including diarrhea, decreased activity, and bone marrow suppression were also evaluated. Doxacurium chloride The protocol and owner consent form were approved by the University of California, Davis (UC Davis) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital Clinical Trials Review Board (No. 11-11-10) in accordance with campus policy regarding trials involving client-owned

dogs. Informed owner consent was obtained before enrollment of all patients. Cancer-bearing dogs presenting to the UC Davis William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital (VMTH) between February 2012 and June 2013, with the intention of pursuing at least two doses of doxorubicin during the course of their chemotherapy protocol were considered candidates for enrollment. All dogs received an examination by a VMTH oncology clinician before enrollment. To be included, dogs were required to have a physical examination and weight recorded, in addition to a complete blood count (CBC) and chemistry panel (performed within 2 weeks before enrollment). Clinical chemistry panels and CBCs from veterinary clinics other than the VMTH were considered acceptable. Both therapy-naïve and patients in relapse after standard of care were eligible for entry into this study. In addition, a favorable performance status indicating a high likelihood of receiving two doses of doxorubicin was necessary for inclusion. Dogs were required to be fed twice daily (A.M. and P.M.), or be fed ad lib, as part of the normal husbandry practices in the home. For entry into the study, owners consented to feed a consistent diet throughout the duration of the study.

G. Huault a souhaité transmettre son expérience dans un esprit profondément pragmatique. Il a voulu en faire bénéficier tout médecin étant amené à prendre learn more en charge des enfants en situation de détresse. C’est ainsi qu’en 1977, l’idée

d’écrire un livre avec B. Labrune est née. Cet ouvrage, “Pédiatrie d’urgence”, fut un livre de référence. Traduit en plusieurs langues, il fut le compagnon indispensable des pédiatres, généralistes et internes de garde. Ce fut l’une de ses grandes publications qui connut de multiples éditions. Une recherche « G. Huault » sur Pubmed® donne peu de résultats, et pourtant chaque pédiatre, chaque néonatologiste, chaque réanimateur porte en lui une étincelle de Huault, grâce notamment à son ouvrage. Mais G. Huault ne s’est pas arrêté là. En 1982, l’équipe de Saint-Vincent-de-Paul, déménagea à l’Hôpital

de Bicêtre. Cela lui donna l’occasion de monter un service de réanimation des plus modernes. La polyvalence restait le principe même de fonctionnement du service mais la proximité du service d’hépatologie permit d’élaborer le premier programme de transplantation hépatique de l’enfant en 1985. De même, la proximité du service de neurologie et de neuroradiologie interventionnelle permit la prise en charge des malformations cérébrales vasculaires du nouveau-né et de l’enfant qui jusqu’alors étaient constamment fatales. La volonté d’innover, Tenofovir in vitro de soigner de façon selleck screening library la plus efficace possible a permit au service de s’adapter aux techniques de réanimation les plus modernes. G. Huault devint pionnier dans l’informatisation de l’activité médicale. Il mit en mémoire une masse considérable d’informations concernant les maladies, leur traitement, leur coûts, ces informations devant servir à la recherche clinique, à l’analyse

de l’activité, à l’évaluation médicale et à l’étude des coûts. Par delà les techniques, la rigueur scientifique, les exigences d’une organisation efficace, G. Huault donna au service une dimension humaine prenant en compte non seulement les difficiles problèmes d’éthique que pose la réanimation pédiatrique mais également la vie et le ressenti de l’équipe médicale et paramédicale. Ainsi, G. Huault est allé au-delà de la fondation d’une nouvelle activité et d’une véritable discipline universitaire : il a créé une école solidement attachée à la néonatologie et la pédiatrie. Depuis sa retraite, en 1997, il continuait de travailler tous les jours à la bibliothèque universitaire pour promouvoir la santé du nouveau-né et de l’enfant. Là encore, il montra le chemin aux jeunes étudiants qui le côtoyaient.

Historical data from the Mussel Watch Programme (MWP) in South Africa from 1985 to

2008 were sampled during spring and autumn at PR-171 solubility dmso spring low tide. Samples of M. galloprovincialis were collected and analysed for metals (μg/g dry weight) by the Department of Environmental Affairs and seven metals were analysed for this study (Cd, Cu, Pb, Zn, Hg, Fe and Zn). Prior to 1995, all MWP samples (n = 702, average mussel length = 60.8 mm) were collected and processed according to the methods used by Watling and Watling (1976). In brief, soft tissue of M. galloprovincialis were weighed and then dried at 105 °C for 48 h. The tissue was then digested with redistilled, analar-grade nitric acid and the solution was allowed to evaporate. The residue was redissolved LY2109761 manufacturer in a 4:1 nitric-perchloric acid mixture and the solution dried at about 250 °C. This residue was then dissolved in 10 mL of 0.1 mol/L nitric acid. Metal concentrations in solution were determined by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. The results were expressed as metal concentration in mussel tissue of whole organisms (μg/g dry tissue). Watling and Watling (1976) made no reference to any form of quality control and it is thus assumed that no certified reference material was used. After 1995, mussels (n = 802, average mussel length = 62.2 mm) were depurated in tanks filled with flowing

sea water for 24 h, whereafter they were freeze-dried for approximately 3 days and metal concentrations oxyclozanide determined as above. Quality control of metal concentrations was verified by including blanks and certified reference material (CRM) (DORM-2, dogfish muscle tissue, National Research Council Canada).

No data was available regarding recoveries for the entire period but data research reports at the Department indicated that recoveries were within 10% as the institution adheres to stringent quality assurance processes. All statistical data analysis was done using Statistica v10 (Stat. Soft. Inc.). The effects of time (annually and per season) and location on metal concentration in mussels were analysed and presented as mean concentrations (±SD) and further analysis using one-way ANOVA for single factors (year, season or site) and multiway ANOVA to test the effects of time (year and season) and location (distance from control site) on metals (Cd, Cu, Zn, Pb, Hg, Fe and Zn). Prior to the use of the parametric tests, the data were tested for normality and homogeneity of variances using Kolmogorov–Smirnov and Levene’s tests respectively (Townend, 2002). If the data did not meet the assumptions of the tests, the data were log10-transformed prior to analysis. For ANOVA analysis, post hoc Tukey tests were done. Error bars in graphs indicate standard error of the mean. Differences between seasonal metal concentrations were done using one way ANOVA and significant differences indicated at p < 0.05.